History

Ottoman Beginnings

Numerous independent Turkish principalities occupied the frontiers between the Selçuk Sultanate and the Byzantine Empire. These mercenary warriors traded battles and loyalties for grants of land, aiding the Selçuk rulers in their struggles against the Christians, while selling their services to hopefuls vying for the Byzantine throne. The Osmanlis, whose geographical proximity to the Byzantine Empire incited an instinct for plunder, were successful in rousing the surrounding gazis (fighters for Islam) to do the same. After the Selçuk defeat at the hands of the Mongols in 1243, the Osmanlis, under their leader Osman and his son Orhan, began a rapid expansion.

The Osmanlis entered Bursa in 1326, where they set up their first permanent capital. Heading northwest, they rapidly conquered the Marmara shores, crossing the Dardanelles to establish a second fortified base at Gallipoli, in 1354.

Orhan was the first Ottoman leader to assume the title of sultan (formerly an honorary title that caliphs granted to chiefs of Islamic-influenced territories to emphasize their role as spiritual leaders). For the Ottomans, the title had military and political connotations as well. "Sultan" became the standard designation for those in power who answered to no superior other than Allah.

Orhan's son Murat I enjoyed one military success after another. He established a European presence at his new capital of Adrianople (now Edirne), and then directed his armies east into the Turkish emirates as well as west into the Balkans, Albania, and Bulgar territories. By this time the Byzantine emperor, isolated except for sea access, became a vassal of the sultan, and aided the Ottomans in their conquests of the East.

Murat I defeated a Serbian coalition at the Battle of Kosovo, though he was killed in that campaign. Murat's son Bayezid continued his father's expansionistic tendencies, striking both west and east and earning himself the nickname of Yildirim, Turkish for "lightning" or "thunderbolt." The Ottoman advance to the west began to alarm the pope, who was unable to galvanize a proper offensive, except for two dismal attempts by the French and Hungarian armies during a lull in the Hundred Years' War. The Ottomans defeated the French army at Nicopolis on the Danube in 1396, and again on the Black Sea in 1444. But their continued campaigns into the west left their eastern flanks vulnerable. The Mongols, led by Tamerlane, emerged as a major threat in the east, supported by Turkish emirates inflamed by Bayezid's warring on his Muslim brothers -- an act expressly forbidden in the Koran. Bayezid was eventually imprisoned by Tamerlane, who restored the independent territories. Bayezid died in prison, leaving behind a 10-year power vacuum in which his sons would fight for control.

Mehmet I was the sole survivor, and he and his son Murat II are credited with consolidating the Ottoman territories and absorbing, either by force or by marriage, the Turkish emirates to the east. Nonetheless, they were unable to either penetrate Constantinople's defenses or cut off the city's sea routes.

Mehmet II set a nasty royal precedent by strangling his infant brother in order to solve his own problems of succession. He eventually sanctioned fratricide by law: Whoever got acclaimed first was ruler and all his brothers had to die -- ostensibly assuring the ascension of the most capable son.

Mehmet II set his sights immediately on Constantinople, and in 1453, in a brilliant strategy, circumvented the Byzantine defenses of the Golden Horn by carrying his fleet, ship by ship (by means of a brilliantly engineered "moveable path") over land, behind the Byzantine navy. After centuries of decline and decay, the Byzantine Empire had come to an end.

The Ottoman Empire

With his victory over Constantinople, Mehmet II acquired the title of fatih, or conqueror, and established his new capital, naming the city Istanbul, probably after having heard the Greeks say "eis ten polin" (to the city). His troops were permitted 3 days of looting and pillaging, and then the city -- by now practically unpopulated -- was restored to order. He immediately began reconstruction, converting churches into mosques and repopulating the city with artisans, merchants, and farmers from all over the empire. The importance of sea power was not lost on Mehmet, who established control over the Black Sea and managed to capture some of rival Venice's islands in the Aegean. The city's importance as a naval and trading center was confirmed. Istanbul quickly became an international city with a mixture of cultures as Christians, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews all were welcomed by the sultan. After all, these diverse peoples brought with them a wealth of knowledge as well as new tax revenues.

Having removed the final obstacle to the unity of his empire, Mehmet the Conqueror resumed his Holy Wars, dreaming of a world united under Islam. Soon the empire extended into Europe, with conquests of the Balkans, Greece, Albania, Serbia, and Bosnia. The Turks had suddenly become a major European presence, influencing the balance of power to the west.

Bayezid II continued his father's expansion eastward against the Safavid dynasty in Iran, a Shiite presence that would challenge the Ottoman's legitimacy for centuries. Bayezid's son Selim the Fierce (known as Selim the Grim in the West, for his cruelty), impatient with his father's lagging military campaigns, assassinated him and slew his brothers, along with any other possible contender for the throne. He ruthlessly conquered and subjugated the heretic Safavid dynasty of Iran, then subdued the Mamluk Sultans of Syria and Egypt. The guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina wasted no time in recognizing Selim as the new spiritual leader of Islam, and he promptly proclaimed himself caliph.

The long reign of Selim's son Süleyman was the golden age of the Ottoman Empire, distinguished by military successes, administrative organization, economic prosperity, social order, and cultural greatness. The empire flourished under his direction; the population grew, road and caravansary networks were extended, trade prospered, and his military machine enjoyed success after success.

He expanded on the Turkish and Persian traditions of justice to protect the lowest members of society from unfair governmental practices or excessive taxation; state decrees were posted publicly to discourage officials from instituting fraudulent or arbitrary laws. The people responded by hailing him as Süleyman the Lawgiver.

Ottoman Administrative Structure

The Ottoman ruling class was organized into five Imperial Institutions, the most important of which was the military. Almost as important as the military were the scribes, or "men of the pen," whose primary function was the collection of revenue, in addition to their formidable duties in general record keeping. Religion and culture were the dominion of the ulema, Muslim leaders educated in theology and law assigned the task of religious leadership, education, and justice. Finally, the Inner and Outer Palace Services took care of the general day-to-day administration of the palace and care of the sultan.

In theory, all lands belonged to the sultan, who by divine right could claim all titles, revenues, and property. The actual administration was bureaucratic, and the sultan's newly acquired territories were controlled through a timar system adapted from the Selçuks and Byzantines. A timar was a province assigned to a military administrator who, in exchange for the land and its revenue, provided military services and assistance in the administration of the territory. With time and expansion of the empire, the timars were converted into tax-paying farm units, and one-fifth of all property, goods, and captives became royal possessions.

In contrast to the Christian policy of lands passing along generational lines, timars were assigned according to merit. Christians and prisoners provided the sultan with a steady supply of loyal subjects under the devshirme (literally, collection), where teams were sent to conquered territories in search of the best and most promising young boys. Families often hid their children, but on the whole, the opportunity for a distinguished career of service to the sultan was appealing, especially since slaves acquired the social status of their master. Candidates between the ages of 8 and 15 were selected and sent to Istanbul, where they were converted to Islam and educated in the palace school. The finest of the devshirme were chosen for continued education and placement in high palace positions while the majority of the trainees entered into the elite military corps of Janissaries. By 1700 the Janissaries (yeniçeri; literally "new troops") had swelled to over 100,000 from 12,000 during the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, ultimately becoming more powerful than the government they served and inciting frequent rebellions.

The Turkish aristocracy, comprised of Muslims, Turks, Arabs, and Iranians, shared the rank of askerî, with the newer devshirme class of Christian converts making up the ruling class. During Süleyman the Magnificent's reign, this internal rivalry was expertly maneuvered to ensure honesty and obedience.

From the time of Mehmet II, sultans attended sessions of the Imperial Council, a meeting of the sultan's viziers, judges, and department heads (seated on a cushioned platform later simply known as the divan) in Topkapi Palace. At meetings 4 days a week, all government business was conducted; public petitions and complaints were heard in the morning and executive issues were addressed in the afternoon.

Driven by the gazi guiding principle of jihad (struggle), the Ottomans had transformed themselves from plunderers into conquerors.

The Ottoman Decline

Several factors, both foreign and domestic, contributed to the progressive deterioration of the Ottoman Empire over the subsequent 2 1/2 centuries. Although Süleyman left a legacy of territories on three continents and the splendor of an empire without equal, he also left behind a scheming widow -- Roxelana, the Circassian-born concubine he took as his wife and trusted advisor. Roxelana manipulated her husband, his sons, and the court with sometimes fatal results. Roxelana orchestrated events culminating in the murder of Süleyman's favorite sons, Mustafa and Bayezid, thus clearing the path of ascension for her utterly incompetent son, Selim II. Nicknamed Selim the Sot, he preferred the pursuits of physical pleasure to governing the empire, and left his grand vizier in charge of decision making. The grand vizier assumed more responsibility, but simultaneously set an unfortunate precedent of bribery, favoritism, and corruption. And taking a page from Roxelana's book, members of the harem (that is, mothers of prospective heirs) exerted more and more control over the workings of the government; this culminated in the mid-17th century with an era recognized as "The Sultanate of Women."

The abandonment of the traditional practice of fratricide contributed to the weakening of the system as well. Rather than kill off all potential heirs and risk the endangerment of the line, sultans, beginning with Mehmet III in 1595, adopted the practice of imprisoning their sons and heirs instead of assassinating them. Isolated from daily life, inexperienced in the ways of the government or military, accustomed to excess, they either went crazy or emerged completely unprepared for the demands of leadership.

Meanwhile, in the Janissary Corps, celibacy had long been abandoned, and Selim II decreed that sons of Janissaries -- who were born free Muslims -- could enroll. Eventually this paved the way for other free Muslims to join, and by the mid-17th century the Janissary Corps had swelled to 200,000, squeezing the state for the payroll to support the increase in numbers. The purchasing of office undermined the merit system, and although the palace school continued to function, the devshirme was abandoned. During times of peace, without a paycheck, with no active duty and no prospects of conquest or booty, the Janissaries would often turn to moonlighting or to the looting of their own locally governed lands. Already feared by the state structure, they continued to exert an influence on politics to further their won financial interest. Osman II recognized this threat in 1622, but was assassinated by the Janissaries after an effort to control them. Nevertheless, the internal deterioration of the Corps was inevitable as was the weakening of Ottoman military might.

The organization of the timer (feudal-like system of government) was not left unaffected by this internal degeneration. To meet the needs of an expanding empire, the timer system was converted to a tax-based system of farm units, requiring administrators to send a portion of their tax revenues to Istanbul. Local administrators treated the land as private property, siphoned tax monies, and removed any incentive for the peasant population to produce. The effects were not only economically disastrous, but this weakening of the centralized government also encouraged local bandit raids and peasant revolts, consequences that the government was ill-equipped to control.

With the government decentralized, corrupt, and morally hollow, the Ottomans were unable to deal effectively with outside threats, at their northern and western borders, nor could they absorb the economic pressures of a Europe in Renaissance. Vasco da Gama's circumnavigation of Africa opened up new trade routes to the east; the East India Company of London could therefore sell their goods in Istanbul for less than the Ottomans would pay for direct trade with India. And with new sea trade routes, merchants no longer paid levies for passage through Ottoman territory. Meanwhile, a Western industrial revolution produced cheaper goods that flooded the Ottoman market, thanks to those Capitulations (see "Süleyman the Magnificent: Pragmatic Statesman," above). Silver and gold mined in the Americas drove up prices, the cost of living rose, and peasants abandoned their villages, which had disastrous effects on agricultural production.

Obviously not all sultans and administrators proved to be indifferent, ineffectual, and corrupt, but those who weren't were the exceptions. Although a technically inferior Ottoman navy was defeated by a coalition of Western states at Lepanto in 1571, the Ottoman navy was able to reestablish its naval presence by taking Cyprus from Venice later the same year.

The gradual decline was arrested later that century with the reign of Murat IV and his grand vizier, Köprülü, who maintained a policy against corruption and a return to the more centralized system of government. The gazi spirit was reignited, inspiring decades of new campaigns toward further expansion. Köprülü was so effective that the position of grand vizier was handed down to his son and his grandson, Kara Mustafa; this was the first dynasty associated with the post.

The Ottomans were determined to capture Vienna, and in 1683 Kara Mustafa led the army's second doomed attempt to take the Austrian capital. The Ottomans were no match for new European artillery and were soundly defeated by an alliance of European forces -- a miscalculation that Kara Mustafa paid for with his life. The army's retreat was met by ambushes and further defeats, ending in the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, which granted Austria the provinces of Hungary and Transylvania, and marked the first time in history that the Ottoman Empire actually relinquished territory.

The 18th century was, for the most part, characterized by wars with Austria and Russia. Victories against the Austrians served to stabilize borders along the Danube, but the Russians were pushing into Muslim territory in an attempt to become a Black Sea power. In the first half of the century, the Ottoman military met with many successes, not the least of which was the defeat of Peter the Great at the Prut River in 1711. Nonetheless, two additional clashes with Russia culminated in the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which followed a 1774 victory by Catherine the Great. (She, as champion of the Christian Orthodox faith, actively encouraged revolt in Ottoman territories.) The treaty was an enormous blow to the Ottomans, demonstrating that the Ottoman Empire was no longer the great power it once was. In addition to annexing European territories, the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca granted the Russians extensive commercial privileges in the Black Sea, a diplomatic presence in Istanbul, and the protection of the Orthodox Christian faith on Turkish soil. The desire for territorial and economic dominance, along with the trafficking of loyalties, would characterize the Russian-Turkish conflict well into the 20th century.

Süleyman the Magnificent: Pragmatic Statesman

In 1520 Süleyman ascended to the Ottoman Empire throne and immediately launched invasions into Europe. In 1521 he gained control of Belgrade and the Danube. He then turned his attention to Rhodes, the last Crusader stronghold and bastion of the Knights of St. John -- the island that stood between him and his Egyptian territories, not to mention Mecca and Medina. Süleyman triumphed after a 145-day siege, and mercifully released all the Knights and mercenaries, thus gaining the admiration of much of Europe (though he'd come to regret this act later in his career). Eight years later the Knights were granted Tripoli and the Island of Malta in a charter sealed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to thwart movement of Ottoman fleets in the Mediterranean.

Süleyman insinuated himself into the politics of Europe and attempted to destabilize both the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire; he believed that any power in those hands was a threat to Islam. Urged on by Francis I of France, Süleyman defeated the young Hungarian king, Louis II (nephew of Charles V), in 1526 at the battle of Mohács. In 1529, at the request of the appointed king of Hungary, he returned to confront Archduke Ferdinand of Austria. Süleyman drove Ferdinand back to Vienna but was unable to penetrate the city's defenses -- a failure that would become a recurrent theme for the Ottomans.

Although Süleyman's reign was characterized by almost constant war, he brought peace to the lands that he conquered. Süleyman was said to have embodied perfectly the characteristics of adale (justice), much like his namesake, King Solomon. Conquered lands often fared better once he took over. Looting was forbidden, and the sultan gained respect by placing provisions along the route of a carefully planned military campaign so as not to take anything from the local peasants along the way. Kings were retained as vassals of the sultan, and as long as the tributes (taxes) were sent to Istanbul, life continued as before.

Above all, Süleyman was a pragmatic statesman. In 1536 he signed a treaty with Francis I of France, conceding commercial privileges to the French in exchange for an informal alliance against their common enemy, the Hapsburgs. With these "Capitulations," the French were exempt from Ottoman taxes and were permitted to fall under French jurisdiction. In response to this French-Turkish cooperation, the Hapsburgs urged the Persians to wage war against the sultan. Turning his attentions East, Süleyman wrestled Iraq from Persian control, arriving as far as the Persian Gulf. Here the Portuguese dominated trade with the East -- a presence he was never able to repress.

The Mediterranean Sea was another source of annoyance; despite Süleyman's conquest of Tripoli in 1551, the Knights of Malta (including many of the Knights released after the sultan's victory over Rhodes) were aggressively cutting off Ottoman sea routes. Süleyman began his siege of Malta in 1565, but the Knights fought back ferociously, the battle dragged on to winter, and Süleyman was forced to stand down.

The Ottoman armor was beginning to show weakness, provoking Süleyman, at age 72, to reassert his empire's superiority by taking Vienna once and for all. But he died in his tent during the campaign on the Danube. According to tradition, his heart is buried in Szigetvár on the spot where he passed away.