Spurred on by defeat and foreign occupation, nationalists established pockets of resistance called "Defense of Rights" groups. Mustafa Kemal (the name Kemal, meaning "perfection," was given to Mustafa by a school instructor for his exceptional achievement; "Atatürk" was added later) was already an active nationalist, having taken part in the CUP overthrow of 1909. He had subsequently distanced himself from the CUP, but his outspokenness had made him many enemies. Mustafa Kemal was sent to Samsun on May 19, 1919, with nebulous military orders, but instead began organizing various nationalist factions, formally resigning from military service shortly after. His goals in leading the resistance were inflexible: the recognition of a national movement and the liberation of Anatolia from foreign occupation.
That same year two important nationalist congresses were convened at Erzurum and Sivas, forming the basis for the National Pact. The first conference called for an independent Turkish state, while the second defined the objectives of the movement. Presiding over these meetings, Mustafa Kemal called for the rights to all remaining Ottoman territories, control of Istanbul and the Straits, the guarantee of minority rights, and rejection of foreign intervention in Turkish affairs. Unwilling to alienate the loyalists and conservatives, Mustafa Kemal reasserted the movement's allegiance to the sultan-caliphate, maintaining that until the sultan was free of foreign control, the committee would act on behalf of the people. In response, the sultan declared Mustafa Kemal a rebel, and a fetva -- the killing of a rebel as a religious duty -- was issued. Mustafa Kemal and his followers established themselves in Ankara, far from the reaches of their enemies, voting on August 23, 1920, for the creation of the Grand National Assembly.
In the fall of 1919, the Greeks got greedy and began moving inland, arriving as far as the Sakarya River (about 81km/50 miles west of Ankara). Troops led by Ismet Pasa (General) beat the Greeks back to Izmir, and in several decisive victories, Mustafa Kemal succeeded in driving the Greek troops completely off the peninsula. This last victory in the war for independence earned Kemal recognition by foreign governments as de facto leader of the Turks. The Soviet Union was the first power to sign a treaty with the nationalists in 1920, establishing set boundaries between the two countries. As nationalist troops approached Thrace, France begged off a confrontation with a complete withdrawal of French forces. Although the British remained in Thrace, they were unwilling to get caught up in a battle on behalf of the Greeks and instead arbitrated the Armistice of Mundanya, requiring the Greeks to retreat behind the Maritsa River. Kemal had succeeded in retaking possession of Istanbul, the Straits, and Thrace, essentially nullifying the Treaty of Sèvres, and it was clear that a new treaty would have to be drawn up. The Allies invited both the Ottoman government and the Grand National Assembly to participate in the creation of the Treaty of Lausanne, but fearing that divided representation would only weaken his cause, Kemal declared the sultanate abolished and sent Ismet Pasa as sole representative of Turkey. Mehmet VI was smuggled to Malta on a British ship where he remained in exile, putting the final nail in the coffin of the Sick Man and ending 6 centuries of an empire. The role of caliph was given to his cousin Abdümecid, heir to a defunct Ottoman dynasty.
In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne recognized Turkey as a sovereign nation. The nation's borders as proposed by the National Pact were established except for the concession of Mosul to Iraq and that of Alexandretta and Antakya (now the Hatay) to France as part of a Syrian mandate. The treaty also called for Greece and Turkey to exchange their respective minority populations, excluding those in Istanbul and western Thrace. This was meant to improve relations between the two countries in the long run, but tragically uprooted almost two million people from their adopted homelands.
Success at Lausanne was immediately followed by the Grand National Assembly's proclamation of the Republic of Turkey and the election of Mustafa Kemal as president.
