History

At the beginning of the war for liberation, Kemal saw a country in ruins. Kemal's vision for the republic was Westernization, modernization, solidarity, secularization, and equality for all Turks. Kemal governed as an inflexible yet benevolent autocrat, asserting that a transitional period was necessary in securing effective reform. To this end he formed the Republican People's Party (RPP), which became the exclusive political vehicle for his programs. When Abdümecid indicated a desire to expand his role as caliph into the political sphere, Kemal, wary of opposition from anti-reformers and traditionalists, succeeded in having the caliphate abolished, going so far as to banish all members of the house of Osman.

In 1924 the Grand National Assembly drew up a constitution establishing guaranteed civil rights and a legal framework for the government. Elected president by the assembly, Kemal selected Ismet Pasa as his prime minister, handpicked his cabinet, and set out virtually unobstructed on a path of brisk modernization.

To Kemal, secularization was essential in a modern system and vital in dealing with a European world. He ordered all religious schools secular, and closed the religious courts. His rapid reforms were not without opposition -- both from those who wanted a larger role for Islam in the government as well as those who grew disillusioned with Kemal's pervasive cult of personality. The Progressive Republican Party (PRP) was formed from an opposition consisting of former supporters and associates. Kemal, in a willingness to experiment with open dialogue, admitted the party into the system, even replacing Ismet Pasa with the PRP's Fethi Bey.

An uprising in the southeast put a hasty end to this experiment. An insurgency led by Sheikh Said of the Nakshbendi Order of the Dervishes in the Kurdish southeast had broken out, intent on restoring the caliphate. Kemal responded by invoking an emergency law (the Maintenance of Order Law), reinstated Ismet Pasa as prime minister, and swiftly crushed the rebellion. The sheikh was condemned and hanged along with more than 40 other rebels; newspapers were closed down, journalists arrested, and the PRP outlawed.

Years earlier on a trip to Europe, Kemal had been the brunt of ridicule for his tasseled red felt hat; so, in 1925 the fez, symbol of Ottoman oppression, was outlawed. Stating that "civilized men wear civilized hats," Kemal chose to wear the more modern Panama hat, much like how Mehmet the Conqueror had replaced the turban with the more "modern" fez.

Dervish orders were outlawed (but not completely suppressed). The praying at tombs was prohibited. Honorary titles were abolished. It seemed to the people that Kemal was determined to sever all ties with the past and with tradition, and the people in the outlying regions rioted. Mindful that a drastic measure such as banning the veil would enrage his critics, he opted for discouragement instead. Women in Istanbul and in the other cities began to appear in public without the veil, but the practice caught on less quickly in the rural areas.

The legal code was overhauled, taking its examples from the Swiss, Italian, and German systems. Civil law, previously the dominion of the religious leaders, was secularized, which had a particularly profound effect on women's rights. In a move toward equality, polygamy was outlawed and marriage became a civil contract, depriving husbands of the absolute right provided by Islamic law to divorce for any reason. Women were also granted equal rights in matters of custody and inheritance, while education for women on the secondary level was recognized as equal in importance to that of men. By 1934, women's rights had extended to universal suffrage, and Turkey won the distinction of being the first country in the world to have elected a woman to the Supreme Court.

Kemal's flurry of reform angered many Muslims, and in 1926 a plot to assassinate the president was uncovered (although it is unclear whether or not the plot was actually contrived by Kemal himself to rid himself of his opponents). Fifteen conspirators were hanged, including members of the extinct Peoples' Republican Party and a former deputy, while others were either tried and exiled or acquitted. In 1928 a constitutional provision declaring Islam as the state religion was deleted, completing the secularism of the Republic of Turkey.

A census, which was the first systematic accounting of the people of Turkey, brought to light gaping holes in the needs of the population. Only 10% of the people over the age of 7 were literate while even a smaller percentage of children were even in school, prompting significant reforms in education in the next few years.

Kemal's next task was aimed at both engendering Turkish pride and uniting his polyglot nation under one tongue. By the 1920s, Arabic, Persian, and French words made up 80% of language use, and Kemal ordered his scholars to the task of constructing a pure Turkish language purged of foreign influences. Arabic script was replaced with Latin characters. To quiet the voice of his critics, Kemal personally traveled around the country teaching the new alphabet in public squares when necessary. Not even Islam was spared: In 1932 the state made it mandatory for the traditional call to prayer to be broadcast from the loudspeakers in Turkish instead of Arabic, the language of Islam.

All this modernization and bureaucratic reorganization only served to underline yet another need for change. Keeping track of all these Mohammeds, Mahmuts, and Mehmets was getting confusing, and it was obvious that a better method of identification would be necessary. Up to this point, villagers were called by their first names; now, the people were ordered to select a last name, lest they be assigned one less imaginative. Mustafa Kemal was given the name Atatürk ("father of the Turks") by the Grand National Assembly. Ismet Pasa (the Pasa meaning "general") adopted Inönü, the site of one of his victorious battles, while others selected surnames from the less original Bey ("Mr.") to something more creative along the lines of "slayer of mountains." Old habits die hard, however, and even today it is common practice to address a person by his first name, followed by the respectful "Bey."

Atatürk's presidency was characterized by six guiding principles later to be known as the "Six Arrows." In addition to the three early principles of Republicanism, Nationalism, and Secularism, Atatürk worked toward emphasizing the ideals of Populism, Reformism, and Etatism. Populism was based on the principle that all (men) were equal, but just as important was that all men were Turks, emphasizing the sovereignty of the people over their nation. Reformism confirmed their responsibility toward rapid modernization, while Etatism embraced the government's role in economic development. "Political and military victories cannot endure unless they are crowned by economic triumphs," said Kemal, and in 1934 a 5-year plan for achieving economic sovereignty was inaugurated. The Ottoman economic legacy was one of agricultural stagnation and little public confidence in the quality of Ottoman products. A British saying went, "If you want to hang yourself, do it with English rope." Kemal reversed these trends by developing agricultural and industrial production, raising Customs tariffs to protect the local industry, buying up the foreign railroad concessions, and determinedly avoiding the foreign debt trap. Nevertheless, growth was slow and the people began complaining of a low standard of living. The labor law of 1936 set up provisions for the rights of workers: Strikes were outlawed but a method of arbitration was set up. A state insurance program providing for accidents, for unexpected death, and for seniors was established, furthering the government's support of the labor force.

Atatürk fostered a policy of peaceful foreign relations, subscribing to his enduring ideal: "Peace at home, peace abroad." For the first time in Turkish history, antagonism and warfare were not central to the government's approach to its borders. He signed pacts with Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Balkans, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan, and entered into friendly status with the Soviet Union, the United States, England, Germany, Italy, and France. In 1932 Turkey became a member of the League of Nations and in 1936, in response to Mussolini's aggression in Ethiopia, Atatürk successfully lobbied at the Montreux Convention for Turkish fortification of the Straits.

In 15 years of presidency, Atatürk had transformed a feeble dictatorship into a modern, reasonably democratic, forward-thinking republic. On November 10, 1938, his efforts finally took their toll, when, after years of drinking, he died of cirrhosis of the liver, but not without naming Inönü as his successor. The League of Nations offered tribute at his death by calling him a "genius international peacemaker." Atatürk's legacy lives on and even to this day, the time of his death is always observed with a minute of silence.