Early History -- Arizona is the site of North America's oldest cultures and one of the two longest continuously inhabited settlements in the United States -- the Hopi village of Oraibi, which has had inhabitants for roughly 1,000 years. However, the region's human habitation dates back more than 11,000 years, to the time when Paleo-Indians known as the Clovis people inhabited southeastern Arizona. Stone tools and arrowheads of the type credited to the Clovis have been found in southeastern Arizona, and a mammoth-kill site has become an important source of information about these people, who were among the earliest inhabitants of North America.
Few records exist of the next 9,000 years of Arizona's prehistory, but by about A.D. 200, wandering bands of hunter-gatherers took up residence in Canyon de Chelly in the northern part of the state. Today these early Arizonans are known as the Ancestral Puebloans. The earliest Ancestral Puebloan period, stretching from A.D. 200 to 700, is defined as the Basket Maker period because of the large number of baskets that have been found in ruins from this era. During the Basket Maker period, the Ancestral Puebloans gave up hunting and gathering and took up agriculture, growing corn, beans, squash, and cotton on the canyon floors.
During the Pueblo period (700–1300), the Ancestral Puebloans began building multistory pueblos and cliff dwellings. Despite decades of research, it is still not clear why the Ancestral Puebloans began living in niches and caves high on the cliff walls of the region's canyons. It may have been to conserve farmland as their population grew and required larger harvests, or for protection from flash floods. Whatever the reason for their construction, they were all abandoned by 1300. It's unclear why the villages were abandoned, but a study of tree rings indicates that there was a severe drought in the region between 1276 and 1299; perhaps the Ancestral Puebloans left in search of more fertile farmland. Keet Seel and Betatakin, at Navajo National Monument, as well as the many ruins in Canyon de Chelly, are Arizona's best-preserved Ancestral Puebloan sites.
During the Ancestral Puebloan Basket Maker period, the Sinagua culture began to develop in the fertile plateau northeast of present-day Flagstaff and southward into the Verde River valley. The Sinagua, whose name is Spanish for "without water," built their stone pueblos primarily on hills and mesas such as those at Tuzigoot near Clarkdale and Wupatki near Flagstaff, both now preserved as national monuments. They also built cliff dwellings in places such as Walnut Canyon and Montezuma Castle, both also national monuments. By the mid-13th century, Wupatki had been abandoned, and by the early 15th century, Walnut Canyon and pueblos in the lower Verde Valley region had also been deserted.
As early as A.D. 450, the Hohokam culture, from which the Sinagua most likely learned irrigation, had begun to farm the Gila and Salt River valleys between Phoenix and Casa Grande. Over a period of 1,000 years, they constructed a 600-mile network of irrigation canals, some of which can still be seen today. Because the Hohokam built their homes of earth, few structures exist from this period, one exception being the Casa Grande ruin, a well-preserved massive earth-walled building that is now a national monument. Many Hohokam petroglyph (rock art) sites remain as well, a lasting record of the people who first made the desert flourish. By the 1450s, however, the Hohokam had abandoned their villages; many archaeologists believe that the irrigation of desert soil over hundreds of years eventually left a thick crust of alkali in fields, which would have made further farming impossible. The very name Hohokam, in the language of today’s Tohono O’odham people, means “the people who have vanished.”
Hispanic Settlement -- The first Europeans to visit the region may have been a motley crew of shipwrecked Spaniards, among whom was an enslaved black African man named Estévan de Dorantes. This unfortunate group spent 8 years wandering across the Southwest, and when they arrived back in Spanish territory, they told a fantastic story of having seen seven cities so rich that the inhabitants even decorated their doorways with jewels. No one is sure whether they actually passed through Arizona, but in 1539 their story convinced the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico) to send a small expedition, led by Father Marcos de Niza and Estévan de Dorantes, into the region. Father de Niza's report of finding the fabled Seven Cities of Cíbola inspired Don Francisco Vásquez de Coronado to set off in search of wealth in 1540. Instead of fabulously wealthy cities, however, Coronado found only pueblos of stone and mud. A subordinate expedition led by Garcia Lopez de Cárdenas stumbled upon the Grand Canyon, while another group of Coronado's men, led by Don Pedro de Tovar, visited the Hopi mesas.
Over the next 150 years, however, only a handful of Spanish explorers, friars, and settlers visited Arizona. In the 1580s and 1600s, Antonio de Espejo and Juan de Oñate explored northern and central Arizona and found indications of mineral riches in the region. In the 1670s, the Franciscans founded several missions among the Hopi pueblos, but the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 (see “Indian Conflicts,” below) obliterated this small Spanish presence.
In 1687, Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, a German-educated Italian Jesuit, began establishing missions in the Sonoran Desert region. In 1691, he visited the Pima village of Tumacácori, where he planted fruit trees, taught the Natives European farming techniques, and gave them cattle, sheep, and goats to raise. In 1692, Father Kino first visited the Tucson area; by 1700 he had laid foundations for the first church at the mission of San Xavier del Bac, although it wasn’t until 1783 that construction began on the present church, known as the White Dove of the Desert.
The Spanish began settling in the area around Tumacácori and nearby Tubac, calling it Pimeria Alta. In 1775, a group of settlers led by Juan Bautista de Anza set out from Tubac to find an overland route to California; in 1776, they founded the city of San Francisco. That same year, the Tubac presidio was moved to Tucson. In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and Tucson, with only 65 inhabitants, became part of Mexico, which at that time extended all the way to Northern California.
Indian Conflicts -- At the time the Spanish arrived in Arizona, the tribes living in the southern lowland deserts were peaceful farmers, but in the mountains of the east lived the Apache, a hunting-and-gathering tribe that frequently raided neighboring tribes. In the north, the Navajo, relatively recent immigrants to the region, fought over land with the neighboring Ute and Hopi (who were also fighting among themselves).
Coronado's expedition through Arizona and into New Mexico and Kansas was to seek gold. To that end he attacked one pueblo, killed the inhabitants of another, and forced still others to abandon their villages. Spanish-Indian relations were never to improve, and the Spanish were forced to occupy their new lands with a strong military presence. Around 1600, 300 Spanish settlers moved into the Four Corners region, which at the time supported a large population of Navajos. The Spanish raided Navajo villages to take slaves, and angry Navajos responded by stealing Spanish horses and cattle.
For several decades in the mid-1600s, missionaries were tolerated in the Hopi pueblos, but the Pueblo tribes revolted in 1680, killing the missionaries and destroying the missions. Throughout the 1700s, others native peoples followed suit, pushing back against European settlement. Encroachment by farmers and miners moving into the Santa Cruz Valley in the south caused the Pima people to stage a similar uprising in 1751, attacking and burning the mission at Tubac. A presidio was soon established at Tubac to protect Spanish settlers; after the military garrison moved to Tucson in 1776, Tubac was quickly abandoned due to frequent Apache raids. In 1781, the Yuman tribe, whose land at the confluence of the Colorado and Gila rivers had become a Spanish settlement, staged a similar uprising, wiping out that first Yuma settlement.
By the time Arizona became part of the United States, it was the Navajos and Apaches who were proving most resistant to white settlers. In 1863, the U.S. Army, under the leadership of Col. Kit Carson, forced the Navajo to surrender by destroying their winter food supplies. The survivors were marched to an internment camp in New Mexico; the Navajo refer to this as the Long Walk. Conditions at the camp in New Mexico were deplorable, and within 5 years the Navajo were returned to their land, although they were forced to live on a reservation.
The Apaches resisted white settlement 20 years longer than the Navajo did. Under the leadership of Geronimo and Cochise, the Apaches, skillful guerrilla fighters, attacked settlers, forts, and towns despite the presence of U.S. Army troops. Geronimo and Cochise were the leaders of the last resistant bands of rebellious Apaches. Cochise eventually died in his Chiricahua Mountains homeland. After Geronimo finally surrendered in 1886, he and many of his followers were relocated to Florida by the U.S. government. Open conflicts between whites and Indians finally came to an end.
Territorial Days -- In 1846, the United States went to war with Mexico, which at the time extended all the way to Northern California and included parts of Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico. When the war ended, the United States claimed almost all the land extending from Texas to Northern California. This newly acquired land, called the New Mexico Territory, had its capital at Santa Fe, New Mexico. (The land south of the Gila River, which included Tucson, wasn’t included at first; after surveys determined that this land was the best route for a railroad from Mississippi to California, in 1853 the U.S. government negotiated the Gadsden Purchase and the current Arizona-Mexico border was set.)
When the California gold rush began in 1849, many hopeful miners from the east crossed Arizona en route to the gold fields, and some stayed to seek mineral riches in Arizona. However, despite ever-growing numbers of settlers, the U.S. Congress refused to create a separate Arizona Territory. When the Civil War broke out, Arizonans, angered by Congress's inaction, sided with the Confederacy, and in 1862, Arizona was proclaimed the Confederate Territory of Arizona. Although Union troops easily defeated the Confederate troops occupying Tucson, this dissension convinced Congress, in 1863, to create the Arizona Territory.
The capital of the new territory was temporarily established at Fort Whipple near Prescott, but later the same year was moved to Prescott itself. In 1867 the capital moved again, this time to Tucson. Ten years later, Prescott again became the capital, which it remained for another 12 years before the seat of government finally moved to Phoenix, which remains Arizona's capital to this day.
During this period, mining flourished, and although small amounts of gold and silver were discovered, copper became the source of Arizona's economic wealth. With each mineral strike, a new mining town would boom, and when the ore ran out, the town would be abandoned. These towns were infamous for their gambling halls, bordellos, saloons, and shootouts. Tombstone and Bisbee became the largest towns in the state and were known as the wildest towns between New Orleans and San Francisco.
In 1867, farmers in the newly founded town of Phoenix began irrigating their fields using canals that had been dug centuries earlier by the Hohokam. In the 1870s, ranching became another important source of revenue in the territory, particularly in the southeastern and northwestern parts of the state. In the 1880s, the railroads finally arrived, and life in Arizona changed drastically. Suddenly the region's mineral resources and cattle were accessible to the east.
Statehood & the Early 20th Century -- By the beginning of the 20th century, Arizonans were trying to convince Congress to make the territory a state. Congress balked at the requests, but finally in 1910 allowed the territorial government to draw up a state constitution. Territorial legislators were progressive thinkers, and the draft included clauses for the recall of elected officials -- provisions that made President William Howard Taft, an opponent of recalling judges, veto the bill. Arizona politicians removed the controversial clause, and on February 14, 1912, Arizona became the 48th state. One of the new state legislature's first acts was to reinstate the clause providing for the recall of judges.
Much of Washington's opposition to Arizona's statehood had been based on the belief that Arizona could never support economic development. This belief was changed in 1911 by one of the most important events in state history -- the completion of the Salt River's Roosevelt Dam (later to be renamed the Theodore Roosevelt Dam). The dam not only provided irrigation water to the Phoenix area, but it also tamed the river’s violent floods. The introduction of water to the heart of Arizona's vast desert enabled large-scale agriculture and industry. Over the next decades, more dams were built throughout Arizona, and, in 1936, the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River became the largest concrete dam in the Western Hemisphere. This dam also created the largest man-made reservoir in North America, Lake Mead. Arizona's dams would eventually provide not only water and electricity, but also the state's most popular recreation areas.
Despite labor problems, copper mining increased throughout the 1920s and 1930s, and with the onset of World War II, the mines boomed as military munitions manufacturing increased the demand for copper. However, within a few years after the war, many mines were shut down. Today, Arizona is littered with old mining ghost towns that boomed and then went bust. A few towns, such as Jerome and Bisbee, managed to hang on and were eventually rediscovered by artists, writers, and retirees. Today, both Bisbee and Jerome are major tourist attractions known for their many art galleries, interesting shops, and boomtown atmosphere.
World War II created a demand for beef, leather, and cotton, and Arizona farmers and ranchers stepped in to meet the need. Cotton, which was used in the manufacture of tires, quickly became the state's most important crop. Goodyear planted huge fields of the crop and even built the company town of Goodyear, which today is home to one of Arizona's oldest and most prestigious resorts. During the war, Arizona’s clear desert skies also provided ideal conditions for training pilots, and several military bases were established in the state, helping to double Phoenix’s population. When peace finally arrived, many veterans returned with their families, although it wasn’t until air-conditioning was invented that major population growth truly came to the desert.
The Postwar Years -- During the postwar years, Arizona attracted a number of large manufacturing industries and slowly moved away from its agricultural economic base. Today aerospace engineering remains a major industry, and tech-industry growth is slow but steady.
But the economy of the state still relies heavily (too heavily, some say) on real estate, and of course, tourism. The Grand Canyon, which had been luring visitors since the days when they had to get there by stagecoach, was declared a national park in 1919, and by the 1920s, Arizona had become a winter destination for the wealthy. The clear, dry air also attracted people suffering from allergies and lung ailments, and Arizona came to be known as a healthful place. With the immense popularity of Hollywood Westerns, dude ranches began to spring up across the state. From the 1960s on, the rustic guest ranches of the 1930s began to give way to luxurious golf resorts, and “snowbirds” played an increasing role in the state’s economy.
Continued population growth throughout the 20th century resulted in an ever-increasing demand for water. Yet, despite the damming of nearly all of Arizona's rivers, the state still suffered from insufficient water supplies in the population centers of Phoenix and Tucson. It took the construction of the controversial and expensive Central Arizona Project (CAP) aqueduct to carry water from the Colorado River over mountains and deserts, and deliver it where it was wanted. Construction on the CAP began in 1974, and in 1985 water from the project finally began irrigating fields near Phoenix. In 1992, the CAP reached Tucson. However, a drought that began in the mid-1990s has left Phoenix and Tucson once again pondering where they will come up with the water to fuel future growth.
By the 1960s, Arizona had become an urban state with all the problems confronting other areas around the nation. The once-healthful air of Phoenix now rivals that of Los Angeles for the thickness of its smog. Allergy sufferers are plagued by pollen from the nondesert plants that have been introduced to make this desert region look more lush and inviting. However, until the recent economic downturn, the state's economy was still growing quite rapidly. High-tech companies had been locating within Arizona, and a steady influx of retirees, as well as Californians fleeing earthquakes and urban problems, had given the state new energy and new ideas. Things slowed considerably in 2009, but, of course, the sun still shines here, even in January and February when much of the rest of the country is locked in a deep freeze, and that is a powerful lure. As long as winters in Arizona continue to be sunny and warm, you can bet that the state will continue to boom.
Note: This information was accurate when it was published, but can change without notice. Please be sure to confirm all rates and details directly with the companies in question before planning your trip.
